describe the four layers of the gi tract

Even after development is complete, they maintain a connection to the gut by way of ducts. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/1-introduction, https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-1-overview-of-the-digestive-system, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands and accessory organs, Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium absorption, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream, Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs, Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions in the digestive tract, Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, Bones help protect and support digestive organs, Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium absorption in the small intestine, Apron-like structure that lies superficial to the small intestine and transverse colon; a site of fat deposition in people who are overweight, Anchors the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and inferior border of the diaphragm, Suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver; provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver, Vertical band of tissue anterior to the lumbar vertebrae and anchoring all of the small intestine except the initial portion (the duodenum), Attaches two portions of the large intestine (the transverse and sigmoid colon) to the posterior abdominal wall, Identify the organs of the alimentary canal from proximal to distal, and briefly state their function, Identify the accessory digestive organs and briefly state their function, Describe the four fundamental tissue layers of the alimentary canal, Contrast the contributions of the enteric and autonomic nervous systems to digestive system functioning, Explain how the peritoneum anchors the digestive organs. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). The veins that collect nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine (where most absorption occurs) empty into the hepatic portal system. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = "to nourish") is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. Contains lymph tissue. In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. 1. Each layer has different structures and functions. The gastrointestinal tract is a one-of-a-kind system. Describe the development of the body cavities 3. The contractions of these layers promote mechanical digestion, expose more of the food to digestive chemicals, and move the food along the canal. Of these, eugenol, had an EC50 of 1.3 M against EBOV and is present in several plants including clove, cinnamon, basil and bay. epithelium. supports avascular mucosal epithelium. The celiac trunk services the liver, stomach, and duodenum, whereas the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries supply blood to the remaining small and large intestines. Within the mouth, the teeth and tongue begin mechanical digestion, whereas the salivary glands begin chemical digestion. Going from the inside out, these are: mucosa; submucosa; muscularis externa; adventitia or serosa; Figure 2: Schematic drawing of the digestive tract layers Mucosa. On the mucosa layer, small finger-like projections called villi and microvilli help to increase surface area for nutrient absorption. The computer governs all system modules and gives instruction according to real-time analysis of feedback. Present only in the region of the alimentary canal within the abdominal cavity, it consists of a layer of visceral peritoneum overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. Extrinsic innervations of the alimentary canal are provided by the autonomic nervous system, which includes both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. describe the four layers of the gi tractcabo marina slip rates. It also joins the mucosa to the bulk of underlying smooth muscle (fibers running circularly within layer of longitudinal muscle). This process of rapid renewal helps preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued contact with foodstuffs. Submucosa: connective tissue layer lying just below mucosa and contains many blood vessels and nerves. The mucosa, composed of simple epithelium cells, is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. describe the four layers of the gi tract. Each layer has different tissues and functions. citation tool such as, Authors: J. Gordon Betts, Kelly A. In the gastrointestinal tract, the submucosa is the layer of dense irregular connective tissue or loose connective tissue that supports the mucosa. The mucosa is the inner layer of any epithelially-lined hollow organ (e.g., mouth, gut, uterus, trachea, bladder, etc.). Organs of the Alimentary Canal The Mouth and Oral cavity. Layers of the Stomach The stomach is a very complex organ. By clicking on this link you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat, as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. The main function of the organs of the alimentary canal is to nourish the body. Muscularis mucosaeThis thin layer of smooth muscle is in a constant state of tension, pulling the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds. Compare the submucosal plexus with the deeper myenteric plexus. If a person becomes overly anxious, sympathetic innervation of the alimentary canal is stimulated, which can result in a slowing of digestive activity. A. Primary dentition is composed of 20 deciduous (baby) teeth. The enteric nervous system helps regulate alimentary canal motility and the secretion of digestive juices, thus facilitating digestion. 22.5A: Mucosa is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts. Section of duodenum: This image shows the layers of the duodenum: the serosa, muscularis, submucosa, and mucosa. The veins that collect nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine (where most absorption occurs) empty into the hepatic portal system. Name the four layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep. The alimentary canal is the pathway (a tube-like structure) that starts from the mouth and ends in the anus. The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. Name the three regions of the small intestine from proximal to distal. David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis, Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, David Shier, Jackie Butler, John Hole, Ricki Lewis. Young, James A. In general, the GI tract is composed of. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. It lines the lumen of the digestive tract. the pyloric sphincter. Digestive mucosa is made up of three sublayers: (1) a lining epithelium, (2) a lamina propria, and (3) a musclularis mucosae. wall of tubular gastrointestinal tract consists of 4 concentric layers: mucosa. Stomach. While the colon has two layers like the small intestine, its longitudinal layer is segregated into three narrow parallel bands, the tenia coli, which make it look like a series of pouches rather than a simple tube. Mucous membrane: It is also known as mucosa. The serosa is a smooth membrane consisting of a thin layer of cells that secrete serous fluid, and a thin layer of connective tissue. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = to nourish) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach) lies in the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal and is responsible for motility, especially the rhythm and force of the contractions of the muscularis. . Choose a modest trial pack with just two or four candies if you want to try these gummies out quickly. They transport the protein and carbohydrate nutrients absorbed by mucosal cells after food is digested in the lumen. Specifically, the more anterior parts of the alimentary canal are supplied with blood by arteries branching off the aortic arch and thoracic aorta. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. Mucosa is the moist innermost layer; it lines the cavity of the organ. If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a print format, Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. Legal. The digestive tract, from the esophagus to the anus, is characterized by a wall with four layers, or tunics. Gastric glands. All rights reserved. He was the son of Henry Barlow Carter, a well-known artist and it is possible that he honed his natural talents with his father. Lamina propriaIn addition to loose connective tissue, the lamina propria contains numerous blood and lymphatic vessels that transport nutrients absorbed through the alimentary canal to other parts of the body. Food enters the mouth, is digested, and used for energy and nutrients; what cannot be used is expelled from the body. The mesocolon is the portion of the mesentery serving the colon and is considered part of the larger mesentery organ. The Cellular Level of Organization, Chapter 4. Even more severe peritonitis is associated with bacterial infections seen with appendicitis, colonic diverticulitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease (infection of uterine tubes, usually by sexually transmitted bacteria). There are two types of epithelial membranes, mucous membrane and serous membrane. The stomach is equipped for its churning function by the addition of a third layer, the oblique muscle. Throughout its length, the alimentary tract is composed of the same four tissue layers; the details of their structural arrangements vary to fit their specific functions. At the same time, the digestive system provides nutrients to the heart muscle and vascular tissue to support their functioning. Once food products enter the small intestine, the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release secretionssuch as bile and enzymesessential for digestion to continue. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. Esophagus. Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels present in this layer provide nutrients to the epithelial layer, distribute hormones produced in the epithelium, and absorb end products of digestion from the lumen. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Along the way, note how the food changes consistency and form. and you must attribute OpenStax. Starting from the lumen and moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is continuous with the mesentery (see Figure 23.1.2). The third layer with high autonomy is defined as semiautonomous navigation, transferring the decision priority to the system. The structure of these layers varies, in different regions of the digestive system, depending on their function. By clicking on this link you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat, as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. It is composed of two different regions: the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which envelopes the abdominal organs (Figure 23.4). To appreciate just how demanding the digestive process is on the cardiovascular system, consider that while you are resting and digesting, about one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving the intestines. Together, these are called accessory organs because they sprout from the lining cells of the developing gut (mucosa) and augment its function; indeed, you could not live without their vital contributions, and many significant diseases result from their malfunction. The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach) lies in the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal and is responsible for motility, especially the rhythm and force of the contractions of the muscularis. The visceral peritoneum includes multiple large folds that envelope various abdominal organs, holding them to the dorsal surface of the body wall. Even more severe peritonitis is associated with bacterial infections seen with appendicitis, colonic diverticulitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease (infection of uterine tubes, usually by sexually transmitted bacteria). Additionally, it serves as a conduit for a dense branching network of nerves, the submucosal plexus, which functions as described below. The mucosa is the innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. How does this change in consistency facilitate your gaining nutrients from food? Between those two points, the canal is modified as the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines to fit the functional needs of the body. These lymphocyte clusters are particularly substantial in the distal ileum where they are known as Peyers patches. The mucosa consists of the epitheliumitself and also the supporting loose connective tissue, called lamina propria, immediately beneath the epithelium. The lamina propria of the mucosa contains lymphoid tissue that makes up the MALT and responds to pathogens encountered in the alimentary canal. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The GI tract contains four layers: the innermost layer is the mucosa, underneath this is the submucosa, followed by the muscularis propria and finally, the outermost layer - the adventitia. The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. Food, mucus, and digestive juices pass through the lumen, and the mucosa comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). Here's how these organs work together in your digestive system. It includes blood and lymphatic vessels (which transport absorbed nutrients), and a scattering of submucosal glands that release digestive secretions. Mucosa (adjacent to the lumen), submucosa, muscularis externa and serosa. A sheet of mesentery that is remnant of the ventral mesentery, between the liver and the anterior wall of the peritoneal cavity. The layers are discussed below, from the inside lining of the tract to the outside lining: The mucosa is a mucous membrane that lines the inside of the digestive tract from mouth to anus. Each layer has different structures and functions. The Lymphatic and Immune System, Chapter 26. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written In the stomach and intestines, it is a simple columnar epithelium. This is the . f. LARGE INTESTINE - The small intestine leads into the large intestine. 120K views 10 years ago This video describes the functions of the 4 layers of the Alimentary canal. Explain how the displacement current maintains the continuity of current in a circuit containing a capacitor. A few milliliters of watery fluid act as a lubricant to minimize friction between the serosal surfaces of the peritoneum. What are the primary digestive functions of the gallbladder and pancreas? When viewed from above, because of internal reflection, the light source makes a disc of light on the water's surface. Mucosa - Circular muscle layer and longitudinal muscle layer are the two sublayers. The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract. Within these folds are blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that innervate the organs with which they are in contact, supplying their adjacent organs. An ulcer is something that's eroded through the epithelium of the wall. Peritonitis is life threatening and often results in emergency surgery to correct the underlying problem and intensive antibiotic therapy. This tube begins at the mouth and terminates at the anus. Left, right, caudate, and quadrate lobes. The mucosa of the stomach is a simple columnar epithelium composed entirely of mucous cells that produce a protective layer of bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus that clings to the stomach mucosa and protects the stomach wall from being damaged by acid and digested by enzymes. Depending on the section of the digestive tract, it protects the digestive tract wall, secretes substances, and absorbs the end products of digestion. 2. Name the four major regions of the stomach in order from its connection with the esophagus to the small intestine. The blood vessels serving the digestive system have two functions. The digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. Accessory digestive organs comprise the second group and are critical for orchestrating the breakdown of food and the assimilation of its nutrients into the body. When you consider that the alimentary canal is exposed to foodborne bacteria and other foreign matter, it is not hard to appreciate why the immune system has evolved a means of defending against the pathogens encountered within it. It is made of: epithelium; lamina propria consent of Rice University. The four major layers of the GI tract are: the innermost layer is the mucosa, next to it is the submucosa, then comes the muscular View the full answer Transcribed image text: Describe the four major layers of the GI tract that are found from esophagus to anus. Temporary storage of bile produced by the liver. Name the layers of the small intestine from superficial to deep. The muscularis mucosae is a thin layer of smooth muscle and its function is still under debate. The following is a description of the various types of serosae associated with the digestive system: The adventitia is the serous membrane that lines the muscularis externa of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and rectum. What is the importance of the mesenteries? Intrinsic innervation of much of the alimentary canal is provided by the enteric nervous system, which runs from the esophagus to the anus, and contains approximately 100 million motor, sensory, and interneurons (unique to this system compared to all other parts of the peripheral nervous system). Hemorrhagic peritonitis occurs after a ruptured tubal pregnancy or traumatic injury to the liver or spleen fills the peritoneal cavity with blood. The mucosae (singular: mucosa) are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract in order to deal with different digestive tract conditions. The digestive tract, from the esophagus to the anus, is characterized by a wall with four layers, or tunics. In the stomach and small intestine, the smooth muscle generates folds that increase the absorptive surface area of the mucosa. What is the importance of the mesenteries? The secretions of the associated glandular organs, such as the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder, aid the GI tract in accomplishing these functions. We recommend using a Intrinsic innervation of much of the alimentary canal is provided by the enteric nervous system, which runs from the esophagus to the anus, and contains approximately 100 million motor, sensory, and interneurons (unique to this system compared to all other parts of the peripheral nervous system). Want to cite, share, or modify this book? Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon, Next: 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients; absorption of nutrients, Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands and accessory organs, Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium absorption, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream, Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs, Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions in the digestive tract, Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, Bones help protect and support digestive organs, Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium absorption in the small intestine, Apron-like structure that lies superficial to the small intestine and transverse colon; a site of fat deposition in people who are overweight, Anchors the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and inferior border of the diaphragm, Suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver; provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver, Vertical band of tissue anterior to the lumbar vertebrae and anchoring all of the small intestine except the initial portion (the duodenum), Attaches two portions of the large intestine (the transverse and sigmoid colon) to the posterior abdominal wall, Describe the organs of the alimentary canal from proximal to distal, and briefly state their function, Identify the accessory digestive organs and briefly state their function, Describe the four fundamental tissue layers of the alimentary canal and the function of each layer, Contrast the contributions of the enteric and autonomic nervous systems to digestive system functioning, Explain how the peritoneum anchors the digestive organs. The first group is the organs that make up the alimentary canal. It contains blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph nodules, and lymphatic vessels. It can also determine the presence of small or large bowel obstruction, air fluid levels, pneumobilia or the presence of intramural air in bowel loops as well as in the gall bladder or urinary bladder. Crown, neck, and root. The alimentary canal is the part of the digestive system that food actually passes through (the. A: The alimentary canal is defined as the narrow muscular tube by which food enters and solid wastes Q: From the esophagus to the anal canal, the walls of the digestive tract are made of the same four A: The digestive tract consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. In turn, the digestive system provides the nutrients to fuel endocrine function. The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, rectum, and internal reproductive organs. 1. As its name implies, the submucosa lies immediately beneath the mucosa. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. The basic two-layer structure found in the small intestine is modified in the organs proximal and distal to it. An abdominal series provides valuable information as to the presence of free intra- or retroperitoneal air. The digestive tract wall initiates from the esophagus and ends at the rectum. The mass of each biological compartment was assumed to be a fixed percentage of the core body mass, following prior work (Bryden, 1971; Laws et al., 2003).The model uses allometric relationships to update the mass of each compartment daily that captures the effects of growth dilution on tissue Hg concentrations and the rapid growth of ringed seal pups (Hickie et al., 2005). In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. Three C. Four Correct D. Five The tissue layers that compose the walls of the GI tract are: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. Deeper connective tissue which supports the mucosa The muscularis mucosae, the outer layer of the mucosa, is a thin layer of smooth muscle responsible for generating local movements. The Immune System and Other Body Defenses, Chemical Reactions in Metabolic Processes, Quiz: Chemical Reactions in Metabolic Processes, Connective Tissue Associated with Muscle Tissue, Quiz: Connective Tissue Associated with Muscle Tissue, Quiz: Structure of Cardiac and Smooth Muscle, Muscle Size and Arrangement of Muscle Fascicles, Quiz: Muscle Size and Arrangement of Muscle Fascicles, Quiz: The Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid, Quiz: The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Glands, Quiz: Functions of the Cardiovascular System, Quiz: Specific Defense (The Immune System), Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses, Quiz: Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses, Quiz: Structure of the Respiratory System, Quiz: Structure of the Digestive Tract Wall, Online Quizzes for CliffsNotes Anatomy and Physiology QuickReview, 2nd Edition. The blood vessels second function is to supply the organs of the alimentary canal with the nutrients and oxygen needed to drive their cellular processes. Most of the operating systems installed on personal computers come with several client processes, but normally no server processes. EpitheliumIn the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. Four layers of digestive tract walls. Submucosa. Both the mouth and anus are open to the external environment; thus, food and wastes within the alimentary canal are technically considered to be outside the body. The structure of these layers varies, in different regions of the digestive system, depending on their function. Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. This process of rapid renewal helps preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued contact with foodstuffs. The peritoneal cavity is the space bounded by the visceral and parietal peritoneal surfaces. In the esophagus, the epithelium is stratified, squamous, and non-keratinizing, for protective purposes. The mucosa is the innermost layer. This book uses the Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . It includes blood and lymphatic vessels (which transport absorbed nutrients), and a scattering of submucosal glands that release digestive secretions. General structure of the gut wall: This cross section shows the mucosa in relation to the interior space, or lumen. Peristalsis is more efficient, it moves the bolus through waves rather than churning found in segmentation. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. Thus, the location of these organs is described as retroperitoneal. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.

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